Human Cloning: A Brief Insight

Abstract:

Cloning as a topic has been explored in various media. Blockbusters such as the Jurassic Park and Jurassic World series explore the idea of cloning creatures from the Jurassic and Cretaceous period by using their DNA and inserting it in mosquitoes and bringing to life these magnificent creatures. In other media such as the Star Wars Saga, the clones mentioned in it are in essence one person who has been created multiple times. Though the idea of cloning an entire being may seem fascinating there are multiple misconceptions regarding this. Fiction has taught us to believe that animals, humans can be cloned and they will turn out to be identical, this is as far from the truth as it can be. Human cloning is not physically possible at this point in time, but advancements have been made that permit us to clone certain parts of the human body such as organs for research and medical purposes.

Reproducing life forms with specific genetic traits has always been a mission of genetic scientist. This paper discusses the idea of cloning with special emphasis on Human Cloning. The aspects covered are what is human cloning, why would one want to clone humans or parts of a human body, how would this process be carried out, the applications of human cloning, the ethics along with my thoughts on the matter. The content in this paper is based on research papers, narrative reviews and meta-analysis.

Introduction:

Cloning is essentially the process of generating a genetically identical copy of a cell or an organism. (National Academy of Science, Scientific and Medical Aspects of Human Reproductive Cloning). Cloning is of two types natural and artificial. This communication paper focuses on artificial cloning. Artificial cloning is a reproductive technique where an organism is produced with an identical genetic make-up as the original. The first documented study in the field of artificial cloning took place in 1885 when a German scientist by the name of Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch began his research in reproduction. A few years later, in 1902, he was able to bring to life a pair of identical Salamanders. He did so, by splitting an embryo into 2 viable embryos. The actual term of “clone” and “cloning” with respect to humans did not originate until the 20^th century when J. B. S. Haldane in 1969 introduced the idea in his speech on Biological Possibilities for the Human Species of the Next Ten Thousand Years.

Artificial Cloning:

Artificial cloning is a reproductive technique where an organism is produced with an identical genetic make-up as the original. There are three major types of artificial cloning – gene cloning, reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning. (National Human Genome Research Institute)

Gene Cloning:

Gene cloning, also known as molecular cloning, refers to the process of isolating the DNA sequence of interest for the purpose of making multiple copies of it (Francisco J. Ayala, 2015). The identical copies are clones. In 1973, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer developed techniques to make recombinant DNA, a form of artificial DNA. The steps used in the process of gene cloning are firstly the isolation of target DNA fragments, secondly inserting those fragments into the suitable cloning vector (cloning vector is a DNA molecule that is used to carry a foreign DNA into the host cell). Thirdly, transferring the plasmid created by the insertion of the foreign DNA into a bacteria that is acting as the host cell for the purposes of propagation and lastly, by using the ability of the bacteria to replicate we can then extract the host cells that contain the intended plasmid.

Reproductive Cloning:

Reproductive cloning involves the embedding of a cloned embryo into a uterus. The embryo then develops into a foetus that is then carried to term depending upon the gestation period of the organism. However, it is important to note that reproductive cloning is not defined by the method used to develop the genetically identical embryos. There are two methods by which reproductive cloning can take place, they are Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer and Embryo Splitting. The former method involves the removal of a nucleus (the brains of a cell) from a somatic cell (a non-gamete cell) and implanting it into the egg cell of the host. The host’s egg cell has been enucleated, this means that the nucleus has been removed from the egg cell of the host. After this step, the genetic material from the somatic cell is inserted into the egg cell, where it fuses with the egg by the passing of an electric current. The host’s egg cell is now permitted to grow either in a surrogate or by artificial methods. This technique was used in the ground breaking creation of Dolly the sheep. 

The alternative method to Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer is Embryo Splitting. Embryo Splitting as the term states is a process by which a single 2 cell embryo is manually split into 2. These 2 halves grow independently but as 2 identical embryos. The process of embryo splitting is as follows. The procedure is an in vitro one, where the fertilisation takes place outside the organism. The single cell embryo splits into 2, this is when the cells are separated and develop into independent but identical blastocysts. Once, they reach this stage and can be termed as blastocysts they are placed in the uterus.

Therapeutic Cloning:

Therapeutic Cloning is specific in its nature its primary purpose being to provide therapy or cure for a disease. In therapeutic cloning, the nucleus of a donor cell, typically a skin cell, is inserted into a fertilized egg whose nucleus has been enucleated (Francisco J. Ayala, 2015). The nucleated egg begins to divide repeatedly to form a blastocyst. Scientists then extract stem cells from the blastocyst and use them to grow cells that are a perfect genetic match for the patient. The cells created via therapeutic cloning can then be transplanted into the patient to treat a disease from which the patient suffers. The process may seem similar to reproductive cloning, but with divergent goals the goals are very different. In reproductive cloning, the intent is to create a completely new organism whereas in therapeutic cloning we are only creating a new part of an organism.

Uses of Human Cloning:

Human Cloning serves three broad purposes. It can be used in research, medical use and personal use. The uses of Human Cloning in research are plentiful. The ability to observe human pluripotent stem cells grown in culture provides great insight into the development of embryo’s, which otherwise cannot be seen. This new ability enables scientists to better define steps of early human development. Studying the transfer of both physical and chemical signals along with genetic manipulation within the early human embryo is another way in which human cloning serves a great purpose in research. It has the potential to provide answers to many developmental diseases and defects. The use of cloning in therapy has proven to be a life saver. Human therapeutic cloning is an area that can represent a limitless source of cells for transplantation medicine. If these methods prove to be widely applicable, the use of anti-rejection medications which have an adverse effect on the immune system of the body, will no longer be required to be administered post-transplant. Thus lowering the overall costs of health care in our society. Such possible treatment opportunities include being able to cure Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, and cancer. In the realm of personal use reproductive cloning could permit parents who wish to have a child that is genetically identical with one of them, or with another nucleus donor. It will also allow parents who have lost a child and wish to have another, genetically identical child. These are only a few of the potential ways in which human cloning can prove to be useful to humanity.

Ethical Implications of Human Cloning:

The ethical implications of Human Cloning is one of the primary reasons for slow growth this field has experienced and is experiencing. There are scientists on both side of the aisle, with regards to their support for Human Cloning. There are those who advocate that therapeutic cloning should be propagated as it allows us to generate tissues and whole organs, which can prove crucial in the treatment of an individual who is unable to find a donor. This would also eliminate the need for the use of immunosuppressant drugs that could harm the patient.  Moreover, advocates of reproductive and gene cloning state that parents who otherwise cannot procreate should have access to this technology.

 Those supporting the statement that Human Cloning is unethical stem their argument from the fact that Human Cloning involves the use of embryonic stem cells. The use of embryonic stem cells is also associated with the debate on abortion and the right to life. Besides, opponents consider the technology to be unsafe and unstable. There objection is based on the underlying suspicion that that reproductive cloning as a process could be abused and misused. They fear that it could lead to a generation of humans, whose only purpose would be to provide organs that can be harvested. Subsequently, this could lead to the debate on if clones would have the same rights as the “original” individual or will the right to life of an embryo be superseded by the will of the donor.

The religious aspect is also crucial in this discussion. Faith leaders believe that this technology surpasses God’s role in creation and destruction of life. Though, there is a consensus amongst faith leaders supporting therapeutic cloning due to its life saving ability.

As stated by article 11 of UNESCO’s Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights that “asserts that the reproductive cloning of human beings is contrary to human dignity, that a potential life represented by the embryo is destroyed when embryonic cells are used, and there is a significant likelihood that cloned individuals would be biologically damaged, due to the inherent unreliability of cloning technology” brings up a compelling argument regarding the societal aspect with regards to the ethics of Human Cloning. The question that arises is will these clones be able to integrate in society? Will they have a similar interaction with their environment like the “original” individual did?

The social relationships will also change if Human Cloning is permitted. For example, a female DNA donor would be the clone’s genetic twin, rather than mother, complicating the genetic and social relationships between mother and child as well as the relationships between other family members and the clone.  In another scenario there may be expectations that the cloned individuals would act identically to the human from which they were cloned, which could infringe on the right to self-determination.

As stated before, some scientists believe that the technology is unsafe and unstable this could lead to chances of producing several nonviable embryos which could lead to an exponential increase in abortions and miscarriages, the former of the two has much opposition and the latter takes a great emotional toll. This also raises questions such as who is responsible for the clone and its actions?  What if they do not want it because it is not an exact replica? What if it takes some years to realize that the clone is not an exact copy? Who is responsible for what went wrong and what are the repercussions?

Along with the religious, social, moral and scientific aspects of the argument there is also the legal and political one. The debate surrounding the legality of Human Cloning is one that has been doing the rounds for what seems likes eons. Several countries like France and Germany have laws that completely forbid human cloning, while other countries, like England, Israel, and China, allow human cloning for research, but not for reproduction. Others lack human cloning laws altogether. In addition, due to the lack of laws surrounding reproductive cloning it is essentially legal as there are no legal barriers preventing individuals form carrying out reproductive cloning. The United States has laws stating that government funding of human cloning research and production is prohibited. Though there is no restriction on private money doing the same. The political aspect is another one that is extremely relevant to this discussion. Could Human Cloning lead to creation of super soldiers or an armada like seen in Star Wars? What are the implications on society as a whole?

Lastly, the economic or the financial aspect of Human Cloning is another important consideration. Certain studies as done by the North Carolina State University estimate the costs to be in the vicinity of at a bare minimum of $50,000 as of 2001 and considering inflation that amount is well over $70,000. Moreover, the cost isn’t the main factor that needs to be discussed, what does need to be mentioned is that this could very well be a medical procedure that only the affluent have access to. This once again puts those not so well of at a disadvantage and would not let them reap the rewards of scientific discoveries.

Personally, I believe that therapeutic cloning has no deleterious effect on society. It provides researchers, medical professionals and patients with an alternative that was not feasible earlier. For researchers they can tests the effect of a drug on a specific organ without the need for using human trials that may endanger an actual life. It would also reduce animal testing for cosmetic products. For medical professionals they know they have a failsafe in case they are unable to find a donor that may suit the patient. The patient is also reassured that if he/she has to get a transplant then the chances of the body’s immune system rejecting the organ or tissue would be negligible.

With regards to gene cloning, we already see it in use when we create insulin artificially rather than from the pancreases of cows and pigs. With regards to reproductive cloning, there are many unanswered questions which I would pose to the readers. The first of which is what ecological effects are likely to occur as we cross species barriers by creating hybrid organisms? And secondly how can we control the creation of genetically engineered organisms tailored for particular human populations in the service of military or terrorists’ agendas?

In addition to this it is important to remind ourselves that reproductive cloning doesn’t mean that if we were to clone Albert Einstein, who lived in the 20th century, the resulting clone would be the exact same person in the 21st century. Agreed, he will look exactly the same, but his personality, thinking, behaviour would be unique to the clone because DNA is not the only determinant of these characteristics. The “original” individual and the clone will experience different environments and nutritional inputs while in the uterus, and they would be expected to be subject to different inputs from their parents, society, and life experience as they grow up. As a result, the mentality of the clone would be completely different from the original.

Human Cloning has opened many avenues for research and growth in the field of science and technology. The various applications of each method of human cloning have demonstrated to be ground breaking along with answering many questions that were previously left unanswered. Though, with the advent of this technology further questions do arise. These questions primarily relate to the heavily debated topic of the ethics of human cloning.

Cloning an entire human body as of now is still science fiction. Advances have been made such as creating genetically modified babies as done in China in 2018. But all these advancements fall into the grey areas of the ethics of cloning and as a result they aren’t published a great deal due to the risk of repercussions.

Scientific advances bring about changes which society as a whole is slow to accept. As with all advancements, the crucial question that needs to be asked is whether the gains of implementing the advancements outweigh the potential losses. Finally, I personally believe that cloning technology is a reality, for better or for worse, and it will not go away. If society bans the use of this technology now, we ourselves will be underprepared to deal with this eventuality. If we do begin to utilize this technology on a larger scale and become familiar with it and set up international laws and guidelines for its utilization, however, we will be better prepared for the misuses that will eventually plague us like what happens with all new technologies.